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548178SGOXXX10.1177/2158244014548178SAGE OpenAbdulai and Owusu-Ansah
research-article2014
Article
SAGE Open
July-September 2014: 1 –15
Essential Ingredients of a Good Research © The Author(s) 2014
DOI: 10.1177/2158244014548178
Proposal for Undergraduate and sgo.sagepub.com
Postgraduate Students in the Social
Sciences
1 2
Raymond Talinbe Abdulai and Anthony Owusu-Ansah
Abstract
As part of the requirements for the award of degrees in higher education institutions, students at undergraduate and
postgraduate levels normally carry out research, which they report in the form of dissertations or theses. The research
journey commences with the selection of a research topic and the preparation of a proposal on the selected topic. Experience
has shown that students tend to encounter difficulties in writing research proposals for their supervisors because they do not
fully comprehend what constitutes a research proposal. The purpose of this article is to take students through a step-by-step
process of writing good research proposals by discussing the essential ingredients of a good research proposal. Thus, it is not
a didactic piece—the aim is to guide students in research proposal writing. In discussing these ingredients, relevant examples
are provided where necessary for ease of understanding. It is expected that on reading this article, students should be able to:
(a) demonstrate knowledge and understanding of what research is all about and its challenging nature; (b) display an enlarged
comprehension of research gap(s), problem or question(s), aim, objectives, and hypotheses as well as their distinguishing
characteristics; (c) demonstrate a good understanding of the relevant elements to be considered in the constituent sections
of a good research proposal; and (d) comprehend the elements of a research proposal that should feature in the final written
dissertation or thesis.
Keywords
essential ingredients, research, social sciences, writing a good proposal
Introduction Thus, any research conducted must make an original contri-
Students pursuing studies in academic institutions (particu- bution to the existing body of knowledge in the relevant
larly, universities) both at the undergraduate and postgradu- discipline.
ate levels are required to conduct an independent piece of There are two main types of research, which are scien-
research and present in the form of a dissertation or thesis as tific/academic research and research that is more or less car-
part of the requirements for awarding academic degrees. It is ried out by people in their daily lives, known as common
expedient at this stage to explain what research means and its sense research. In distinguishing between these two types of
types because that provides a context for the ensuing dis- research, Lundberg (1942) explains that nearly all people in
course. Research is a careful, systematic, and patient investi- the course of their daily lives may systematically observe,
gation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish classify, and interpret data, which is a form of research. For
facts or principles; it is a structured inquiry that utilizes an instance, a potential purchaser of a particular model of a car
acceptable scientific methodology to collect, analyze, and may systematically investigate about the performance of the
interpret information to solve problems or answer questions car before finally making a decision to purchase it and this
and to create new knowledge that is generally applicable constitutes research. Lundberg, however, observes that this
(Burns, 1997; Grinnell, 1993; Kumar, 2011). Similarly,
according to Research Assessment Exercise (2005), research 1Liverpool John Moores University, UK
is an original and systematic inquiry or investigation into a 2Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration, Accra, Ghana
subject to gain knowledge and understanding of a phenome- Corresponding Author:
non. Research can, therefore, simply be described as a jour- Raymond Talinbe Abdulai, School of Built Environment, Liverpool John
ney embarked upon that leads to the discovery of new Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK.
knowledge or revision of facts, theories, and applications. Email: R.Abdulai@ljmu.ac.uk
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
Creative Commons CC BY:
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further
permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (http://www.uk.sagepub.com/aboutus/openaccess.htm).
2 SAGE Open
type of research is different from scientific research because research cannot be over-emphasized as it determines the
of the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability, and validity of research findings. In terms of empirical issues,
general validity of the latter. The essential features of aca- any conclusions drawn should be based on hard evidence
demic research are that it should, as far as possible, be con- collected from real-life experiences or observations (Kumar,
trolled, rigorous, valid and verifiable, empirical, critical 2011). It, however, needs to be noted that in conducting aca-
(Kumar, 2011), reliable, systematic, arguable, and demic research, not all data will be based on real-life experi-
challengeable. ences or observations as there can be desktop research, which
Regarding the concept of control, in real life, many fac- is considered later. Regarding critical issues, critical scrutiny
tors can affect an outcome and, therefore, in exploring the of the procedures or methods used is crucial to a research
causality in relation to, for example, two variables, it is inquiry; that is, the process and procedures adopted must be
important that the study is set up in a manner that minimizes able to withstand critical scrutiny (Kumar, 2011).
the effects of other factors affecting the relationship (Kumar, Academic research is also systematic, arguable, and chal-
2011). This, Kumar notes, can be achieved to a large extent lengeable. This is because what is to be addressed or investi-
in the physical sciences because most of the research is con- gated [that is, the research problem or question(s)] must, first
ducted in a laboratory setting. He, however, opines that in the of all, be established based on the research gap(s) identified
social sciences, it can be extremely difficult to control exter- in the relevant literature. Second, how the research problem
nal factors as the research is carried out on issues relating to or question(s) are to be addressed has to be determined.
human beings living in a society where such controls are Third, data will be collected, presented, and analyzed using
impossible and it will, thus, be necessary to quantify their appropriate data analysis tools and the research findings dis-
impact. It appears, Kumar assumes, that such impacts can cussed. Finally, conclusions and appropriate recommenda-
always be quantified. However, it might not be possible in all tions will be made. Thus, conducting research is a systematic
cases and even where they can be quantified, an issue that process that involves the realization of milestones and deliv-
may arise will relate to the appropriate technique to be used erables. As aptly observed by Kumar (2011), the procedures
and these constitute some of the challenges in the research adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical
process. sequence and, therefore, the different steps cannot be taken
In terms of the rigorousness of academic research, scru- in a haphazard manner—some procedures must follow oth-
pulousness on the part of the research is required to ensure ers. Timescales and resources for research are normally tight.
the procedures followed to address problems or find answers Any research to be conducted will be time-bound and, thus,
to questions are relevant, appropriate, and justified (Kumar, the researcher has no infinite time, neither has he got limit-
2011; Lundberg, 1942). These authors observe that the less resources for the research; these constitute challenges
degree of rigor will vary markedly between the physical and that are normally referred to as research limitations or con-
social sciences. The concept of validity and verifiability straints. Other research challenges that might be encountered
implies that the conclusions, which are made based on the in the research process include issues relating to the particu-
research findings, should be correct and can be verified by lar research methodology used and accessibility to data. It is,
the researcher and others (Kumar, 2011). Validity is about the thus, very important to comprehend these research chal-
study’s success at measuring or investigating what the lenges and to acknowledge them in the research process.
researcher sets out to measure or investigate (internal valid- There are two main forms of academic research based on
ity) and the extent to which the research findings can be the sources of data. The first one is desktop research, which
applied to new settings (external validity) (Bell & Bryman, is any research conducted where the source of data is solely
2011; Bryman, 2012; Bryman & Cramer, 2005; Creswell, published and unpublished materials; that is, the research
2003, 2009; Curtis & Curtis, 2011; Lincoln & Guba, 2000; relies heavily on secondary data. Examples will include
Szafram, 2012). Albeit other types of validity exist, it suf- information from books, journal articles, published and
fices that only internal and external validity is mentioned unpublished dissertations and theses, reports, databases,
because the object is to briefly define the concept. newspapers, and magazines. The second one is empirical
Reliability refers to the extent to which a test or any mea- research where data are gathered via direct experience,
suring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials observation, experimentation, interviews, and question-
(Bell & Bryman, 2011; Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2003, 2009; naires—this type of research, therefore, uses mainly primary
Creswell & Miller, 2000; Curtis & Curtis, 2011; Farrell, data. It is possible to conduct academic research, which is an
2011; Krippendorff, 2013; Lincoln & Guba, 2000). It is, amalgam of the two and, therefore, they are not watertight
therefore, about consistency. It is when research procedures closed boxes.
or tools used by different researchers yield consistent mea- The preoccupation of this article is academic research
surements that researchers are able to satisfactorily draw since it is that type of research that students in universities
conclusions, formulate theories, or make claims about the are normally required to conduct and report in a dissertation
generalizability of their research findings (Creswell, 2003, or thesis form. The research journey normally commences
2009). Thus, the importance of reliability in academic with the selection of a research topic from a subject or an
Abdulai and Owusu-Ansah 3
area of interest and the preparation of a research proposal on topics from lecturers based on their research interests may be
the selected topic. A research proposal clarifies the thoughts available for the students to choose from. One advantage
of the researcher. Furthermore, it aids him to organize his with this route is that the student is able to settle on a topic
ideas into a coherent statement of research intent regarding within a shorter period of time in comparison with the first
what is to be investigated, how it will be investigated, and the one above. The other advantage is that in the supervision
significance/importance of what is to be investigated. It also process, the lecturer will be in a much better position to offer
offers him an opportunity to convince an assessor or any expert advice providing the student who has chosen one of
other reader that the proposed research can be conducted the topics of a particular lecturer is allocated to that lecturer
within a given time frame and resources. to supervise. This significantly enhances the quality of super-
The purpose of this article is to discuss the essential ingre- vision and ultimately contributes in enhancing student satis-
dients of a good research proposal. The experience of the faction and experience. However, the latter advantage cannot
authors in teaching research methodology and supervising be achieved if the student is not finally allocated to the lec-
students at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels turer whose topic has been chosen by the student and this
shows that students tend to find it difficult understanding the happens in some cases in universities. The experience of the
essential ingredients of a research proposal and for that mat- authors in coordinating dissertations also shows that this
ter, find it difficult to write good research proposals. Thus, route to selecting research topics can be problematic in some
there is the need to explain such ingredients in more detail cases, especially, when the student is facing difficulties in the
and to provide relevant examples where necessary for ease of course of conducting the research; they tend to use the fact
comprehension. The article is, therefore, not a didactic that the topics were given to them by their lecturers as an
piece—rather, the purpose is to guide students in research alibi for their problems.
proposal writing. These ingredients are research topic, Whichever route is used to select a topic, it is very impor-
research background and gap(s), research aim and objec- tant to seriously consider the availability of relevant data and
tives, research methodology, research significance/impor- its accessibility for the research in the decision making pro-
tance, research program, and references, which are treated in cess. Table 1 provides examples of good and bad research
that order. Elements of the research proposal that are sup- topics.
posed to feature in the final written dissertation or thesis are
also considered before the article is concluded. Research Background
Research Topic Various terms are used to describe the research background
As indicated above, the research proposal is prepared on a or background to research section, for example, “broad dis-
cussion” (Holt, 1998), “rationale” (Hart, 2001; Naoum,
selected research topic but the topic will emanate from an 2013), “purpose” (Naoum, 2006), and “introduction.”
area of interest. An area of interest could, for instance, be real Research is conducted to address an existing problem or
estate management or construction management. Such broad question(s), which has not been addressed before and, there-
subject areas will form the basis of a preliminary exploration fore, irrespective of the terminology that is used to describe
to be carried out about the subject by reading the relevant the section, it provides a context for the research, by identify-
literature. The preliminary reading enables the potential ing the research problem or research question(s), which
researcher to familiarize himself with the subject area and to requires a kind of mini literature review. Thus, the terminol-
help him gain a sense of its scope and complexity. Once ogy used to describe the section does not actually matter. A
some background knowledge is gained, the next stage is to literature review is a “systematic, explicit, and reproducible
narrow the subject area by formulating a topic that can be method of identifying, evaluating, and synthesising the exist-
thoroughly investigated within a given period of time. At the ing body of completed and recorded work produced by
topic formulation stage, the potential researcher should be researchers, scholars, and practitioners” (Fink, 2005, cited in
able to articulate at least a tentative topic for the research to Booth, Papaioannou, & Sutton, 2012, pp. 2-3). In other
be conducted. Selecting a topic via this route can serve as a words, it is a process of searching and describing or critically
motivator and driver for the research. Topics that seem inter- analyzing any secondary data that relate to a particular sub-
esting and perhaps meet the career aspirations of the student ject, field, discipline, or topic. Thus, a literature review is
can be identified and pursued. In using this route, it may be simply about making references to the works of other people
helpful to confer with colleagues and lecturers in terms of either in a descriptive or critical and analytical manner. It is a
what one intends to pursue for their input. Admittedly, select- process and there are two types: descriptive literature review
ing a topic through this route takes a lot of time. and critical and analytical literature review.
Regarding, particularly, undergraduate and master’s dis- Based on what literature review means, it is inappropriate
sertations there is another route for selecting a research topic. to use “literature review” as a title or heading of a section in
This is where students fashion their topics based on the a research proposal or a chapter in a dissertation or thesis
research interests of particular lecturers; indeed, a list of albeit it is commonly used that way. For instance, Naoum
4 SAGE Open
Table 1. Examples of Good and Bad Research Topics.
Research topic Remarks
1 To examine the performance of REITs Badly phrased research topic—it is phrased
like a research aim or objective. It is also too
broad. It could be turned into a good and
well phrased research topic as in 2 below.
2 An investigation into the performance of UK REITs from 2007 to 2014 OR Well and appropriately phrased variously
An examination of UK REITs’ performance from 2007 to 2014 OR UK and specific—scope defined regarding
REITs’ performance from 2007 to 2014 geographical location and time period.
3 Impacts of new retail developments on existing inner city shopping centers Well and appropriately phrased variously
and high street shops: A case study of Liverpool One in Liverpool, the and specific—scope defined regarding
United Kingdom OR Examining the impacts of new retail developments geographical location and time period.
on existing inner city shopping centers and high street shops: A case study
of Liverpool One in Liverpool, the United Kingdom OR An investigation
into the impacts of new retail developments on existing inner city shopping
centers and high street shops: A case study of Liverpool One in Liverpool,
the United Kingdom
4 A comparative study of construction procurement methods in Italy and Well phrased and specific regarding the
Germany countries of comparison.
5 Assess the re-development of Liverpool Central Docks Badly phrased research topic. It could be
turned into a good and well phrased
research topic as in 2 and 3 above.
6 Registration of real estate ownership and access to formal capital for small- Well phrased and specific regarding the
and medium-scale enterprises: A comparative study of Zambia and the countries of comparison.
United Kingdom
Note. REIT = real estate investment trust.
(2013) has used it as a section heading in a sample research establish the nexus between what is proposed to be researched
proposal. In writing a research proposal, dissertation, or the- and what has already been studied, (d) improves research
sis, elements of literature review can be found in any section methodology, and (e) enables the researcher to show how his
or chapter once references are cited in that section or chapter findings contribute to the existing body of knowledge and,
even if it is a single reference that is cited. Under the research therefore, helps to contextualize the research findings.
background section of a research proposal, for example, a Purposes (b) and (c) are of more relevance here—the ratio-
mini literature review will be conducted, but the section is nale for a literature review under the research background
titled “research background” and not “literature review.” section is to establish the links between what has already
Similarly, in the research methodology chapter of a research been researched and what is proposed to be researched,
proposal, dissertation, or thesis, references will be cited but thereby, broadening the researcher’s knowledge base as well
the chapter will not be titled “literature review.” It will be as to bring more clarity and focus to the research problem or
appropriately titled, “research methodology.” Also in MPhil research question(s).
and PhD theses, a chapter on a theoretical framework for the The term mini literature review is used in the present con-
study is an imperative but the chapter will be titled “theoreti- text to differentiate it from the main analytical and critical
cal framework” although it will be a literature review. Indeed, literature review that will be presented in the final disserta-
in the empirical data presentation, analysis, and discussion tion or thesis. The mini literature review provides an over-
chapter(s) of a dissertation or thesis, there can be elements of view of the key literature sources from which the ultimate
literature review; for example, a researcher may establish a main research will draw. Thus, it is the mini literature review
finding and compare it with previous findings and in this that will finally be expanded when the dissertation or thesis
instance, the reference(s) for the previous findings will be is being written. Research background is the heartbeat of a
cited. Therefore, it does not make any sense to title a particu- research proposal and the researcher needs to demonstrate
lar section or chapter “literature review”; rather, an appropri- his knowledge of the relevant literature both past and present
ate title or heading that captures the contents of the section or by clearly articulating what other researchers have done in
chapter should be used. relation to the topic to be investigated, what they have found,
A literature review serves various purposes, which have and what aspects have not been researched, known as
been identified by Kumar (2011) and Booth et al. (2012) as research gap(s).
follows: It (a) provides a theoretical background for the Thus, a clear line between previous studies that have been
research, (b) broadens the researcher’s knowledge base and carried out and the research to be undertaken must be shown.
brings clarity and focus to the research problem, (c) helps to In short, the proposed research should be the point
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